The late Elias Landolt was famous as the unquestionable top scientific expert on the plant family of Lemnaceae, commonly called duckweed or water lentils. He was an honorary member of the Swiss Botanical Society, a Professor at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (“Eidgenössisch Technische Hochschule”, ETH) and director of the Geobotanical Institute until his retirement in 1993....
Miniaturisation, or an extreme reduction in body size, is present in both the plant and animal
kingdoms. This process has been associated with novel morphological innovations and
functional adaptations. Whilst miniaturisation has been studied in a wide variety of animal
lineages, we lack an understanding of the morphological changes associated with miniaturisation
in plants. The Araceae...
Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) are ideal model plants and valuable biotech resources with diverse trophic strategies, including mixotrophy. This study investigates the mechanisms and value of mixotrophy in Spirodela polyrhiza 7498. It demonstrates that mixotrophy endows duckweed with significant phenotypic and metabolic flexibility. Under mixotrophic conditions, duckweed enhances intracellular CO₂...
Edna Ben-Izhak Monselise*
Department of Life Science, Bergmann Campus, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8441901, Israel
bened@post.bgu.ac.il
Cellular stress responses involve extensive metabolic reprogramming. While alterations in amino acid concentrations under stress have been widely documented, the potential role of amino acid chirality in stress adaptation remains poorly...
Chloroplasts relocate within cells to maximize energy capture under limiting light and/or to minimize exposure to excess light. In higher plants these movements are mediated by phototropins, blue light photoreceptors that control also other light acclimation processes.
Chloroplast movements share many similarities between the aquatic angiosperm L. trisulca and Arabidopsis thaliana....
Duckweed is a uniquely fast and tractable plant model, making it ideal for studying dynamic plant–environment interactions on time scales impossible with conventional crop or model species. However, fully harnessing this in duckweed requires sample-level environmental control paired with dense temporal phenotyping. Standard room-scale or chamber-scale growth systems lack the targeted...
Duckweeds are unusual among angiosperms in being able to acquire nutrients through the shoot rather than the root. We previously showed that their roots are dispensable for this ancestral function, and that they have lost root-biased nutrient transporter expression (Ware et al., 2023). The cellular biology underpinning shoot nutrient uptake, and its evolution, remain unknown.
To address this,...
Salinity primarily reduces plant productivity by disrupting the photosynthetic apparatus, and cytokinins are considered to be context-dependent regulators of its tolerance (1-3). This study aimed to determine if and how 6-benzylaminopurine (1 μM 6-BA) protects the photosynthetic apparatus of Lemna minor under salt stress (50, 100, 150 mM NaCl) and to analyze how it modulates accompanying...
Duckweeds serve as ideal model plants for whole-plant imaging due to their simple two-dimensional structure and compact size. Using bioluminescent reporters, we have achieved long-term, continuous monitoring of gene expression dynamics at both the whole-plant and single-cell levels (Sci Adv 2016; New Phytol 2021; Plant Physiol 2023). These studies spatiotemporally revealed dynamics of...
Lemna minor of the Lemnaceae (aka duckweeds) family is a superior model for investigating plant-microbe interactions. We designed a project, which aims to quantify the effects of a synthetic bacterial community across the largest genotype × environmental stress matrix (6,480 combinations) examined in a plant–microbe study to date. Multi-omics (metabolome, transcriptome, ionome, and phenome)...
Duckweeds are among the fastest-growing flowering plants and represent promising aquatic biomass resources for food, feed, bioenergy, and other value-added compounds. However, the endogenous mechanisms controlling carbon allocation and lipid accumulation in duckweeds remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated abscisic acid (ABA)-induced lipid remodeling in Lemna minor. Treatment with 1...
Duckweeds predominantly propagate vegetatively, and the mechanisms underlying their sexual reproduction and seed biology remain largely unexplored due to the absence of a tractable experimental system. Here, we identified a Korean ecotype of Lemna aequinoctialis that completes its entire sexual life cycle under laboratory conditions, and established a developmental framework encompassing...
Duckweeds are promising photosynthetic chassis for plant synthetic biology. Yet, it remains unclear whether they can support the heterologous production of complex specialized metabolites and which expression strategies are best suited for multigene pathway reconstruction. Here, I first provide an update on our transformation protocol for the giant duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza). I then show...
In the aquatic environment of Lemnaceae (duckweed), the mechanism for transporting hydrophobic bioactive signals through the aqueous medium remains a critical question. While bilayer extracellular vesicles (EVs) are established components in the plant apoplast, in this study, we identified a unique class of secretory nanoparticles (NPs) in duckweed exudate. Structural and omics profiling...
Small RNA pathways play important regulatory and genome defense roles in plants, 21-to-24-nt short interfering (si)RNAs and micro (mi)RNAs guide the silencing of transposable elements (TEs), viruses and endogenous genes, acting both at the transcriptional gene silencing level (TGS), through RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM), and post-transcriptionally (PTGS). Duckweeds unique reduced...
The shortest definition of evolution is maintenance and expansion of information by the change of information (mutation) and subsequent selection (by environment). On the biotic (post-cellular) level, evolution led to +/- sexually isolated populations of individuals, called species. While karyotypic mutations can initiate speciation, genic mutations lead to allele diversity and adaptability....
Duckweeds are aquatic monocotyledons including the smallest and fastest-growing angiosperms. They predominantly propagate clonally, making sexual reproduction and floral development poorly explored. The most fertile duckweed species belong to the section Alatae, which includes Lemna aequinoctialis, Lemna perpusilla and recently described interspecific hybrids including L. x aoukikusa...
Understanding how plants grow, develop, and respond to their environment requires not only identifying the genes involved, but functionally characterizing what each gene does. To understand how transcription factors regulate genes across tissues and organs, transcriptional data needs to be placed within a spatial, cellular, and organismal context. Wolffia australiana is an attractive system...
Harnessing plant diversity is essential for modern agriculture. Duckweeds have attracted increasing attention as novel crops with applications ranging from food and feed production to molecular farming. Species complexes, which may involve hybridization and polyploidization events, represent an important source of hidden genetic diversity that can be utilized for crop improvement. Recently,...
Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) are emerging as promising crops because of their exceptional biomass productivity and diverse applications. However, progress toward duckweed domestication has been limited by a poor understanding of their sexual reproduction, which is essential to improve genetic information via breeding. Recent genomic studies unexpectedly revealed numerous interspecific hybrids and...
Evolutionary studies mainly focus on the acquisition of new traits in highly diversified plant lineages, with comparatively few studies showing how these traits have undergone secondary loss. Duckweeds provide a tractable system to address this within angiosperms, as they have gradually lost the ability to grow roots and vasculature. These lost traits are regulated by auxin in other...
Holobiont refers to a holistic view of the organism as a combination of an eukaryote and its associated microbiome, which is a dynamic assortment of microbes inhabiting various niches that the host presents. The bacterial microbiome of water lentils (aka duckweeds) has been characterized over the past decade and may enhance or inhibit the growth of these aquatic plants. Most of these studies...
Vitamin B₁₂ is synthesized exclusively by bacteria and archaea, yet duckweeds accumulate bioavailable B₁₂ despite lacking the capacity to produce or use it. We asked how this function is organized within the duckweed microbiome, and whether cultivation conditions could enhance it.
Bioavailable B₁₂ was detected across rooted and rootless duckweed genera, and in additional aquatic plants. Among...
Potential cobalamin (vitamin B12)-producing Wolffia globosa-associated bacteria were investigated through shotgun metagenomic sequencing analysis. Taxonomic classification assigned microbiomes consisting of 5 phyla, 8 classes, 36 families, and 68 genera. High-quality metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) were assigned to Allorhizobium sp., Alsobacter sp., Bosea sp., Bradyrhizobium...
Duckweeds are small, fast-growing aquatic plants that provide a useful model for studying plant–microbiome interactions in aquatic environments. Among them, Spirodela polyrhiza is particularly interesting because it can switch from active vegetative growth to dormant turion formation (starch-rich vegetative propagules), in a turion–plant–turion cycle that allows to examine plant-associated...
In duckweed pond systems established either for biofiltration or biomass production, excessive proliferation of planktonic algae reduces ecosystem services. In this study we revealed those algal related mechanisms resulting duckweed growth inhibition. We isolated 26 algal species from duckweed covered mesocosms and measured their impact on axenic culture of Lemna gibba. At low duckweed...
Duckweeds combine ecological importance with remarkable evolutionary and morphological diversity. In this talk, I will first present our recent work using Spirodela polyrhiza to investigate evolution in complex ecological communities. I will then introduce our ongoing efforts to establish Lemna aequinoctialis as a model for studying the evolution and development of highly reduced...
The Lemnaceae family exhibits remarkable ecological plasticity, allowing these aquatic plants to thrive in diverse freshwater habitats. A key mechanism of this adaptation is the modulation of membrane lipids, which is crucial for maintaining biological functions under fluctuating environmental conditions. While their potential as a sustainable protein source is well-known, the ecological...
Future climate change may reshape ecological communities not only by increasing mean temperature, but also by altering the consequences of increasingly frequent heatwaves. Predicting these effects requires understanding how background warming interacts with short heatwaves in natural communities, where responses can arise through direct thermal stress and species interactions. We tested this...
Whole genome duplication, leading to polyploidy, is a common macromutation throughout the tree of life and especially in plants. It can have strong impacts across biological scales, from gene expression to cellular processes, to morphology and ecological dynamics. This presentation will summarize knowledge gained in our labs on these impacts using Spirodela polyrhiza as a model study system....
The transition from land to water in Lemnaceae represents an extreme case of reductive evolution, culminating in the minute, rootless genus Wolffia. Aerenchyma explains buoyancy, but not how microscopic fronds remain upright, avoid rolling, and aggregate into cohesive colonies without any biological anchor. We addressed this in Wolffia globosa combining microscopy, surface metrology,...
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Duckweeds are the smallest and fastest-growing flowering plants and represent a promising source of high-value aquatic biomass. Here, we summarize recent progress from our group in duckweed research. More than 10 years studies in a 0.33-ha production system in Yunnan demonstrated that duckweed can generate abundant biomass under practical cultivation conditions, with annual biomass...
Now EFSA approval has been obtained for the introduction of Lemna minor and Lemna gibba as vegetable for human consumption we concentrated research activities on methods to obtain stable plant biomass production, adhering to the EC legislation. As we foresee an indoor (vertical) farming system as most successful and controllable, we tested artificial lighting strategies to reach lowest energy...
Non-conventional crops with high nutritional value and efficient resource use may improve food security while reducing environmental pressures. Duckweeds are fast-growing aquatic plants with high potential as alternative protein sources. However, their ability to assimilate several compounds may imposes food-safety concerns. Controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) could reduce microbiological...
Commercial duckweed cultivation may require regular monitoring of biomass quality, but chemical analyses can be laborious and costly. Optical signatures –that is selective light absorbance- of fronds would offer a promising alternative, yet reports on testing such proxies on duckweeds are still scarcely available. To address this knowledge gap, we tested light transmittance- and...
Duckweed is a promising plant-based protein and biomass resource, but efficient breeding and large-scale cultivation require rapid, high-throughput, and non-destructive evaluation of key traits. Conventional methods for determining crude protein and chlorophyll contents are labor-intensive, chemically demanding, and destructive, limiting their application in large-scale germplasm screening and...
The protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B; EC 3.1.3.48), encoded by the PTPN1 gene, dephosphorylates the activated insulin receptor and IRS-1, acting as a negative regulator of insulin and leptin. PTP1B knockout mice, which are more insulin sensitive and resistant to diet-induced obesity, genetically validate PTP1B as a dual target for type 2 diabetes and obesity. However, no inhibitor has...
Innovative cultivation techniques are required for new circular economy applications that require cultivation of large surface areas of duckweed under indoor conditions. To increase duckweed cultivation area relative to floor space, multilayered cultivation systems have been developed. In these stacked systems, duckweed is cultivated on liquid medium, an approach inspired by the natural,...
Efficient extraction methods are required to maximize protein recovery from duckweed (L. minor) while preserving nutritional quality and functionality. The Institute of Food Technology at Weihenstephan-Triesdorf University of Applied Sciences compared ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) and pulsed electric field-assisted extraction (PEF) with conventional alkaline–acidic extraction.
Fresh...
Duckweeds have gained increasing attention as sustainable sources of bioactive compounds with promising applications in functional foods and nutraceuticals. This study comprehensively characterized the phenolic profiles of three duckweed species (Lemna minor, Lemna gibba, and Spirodela polyrhiza) using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry...
Duckweeds are gaining attention as sustainable nutrient-rich biomass due to their exceptional capacity to accumulate proteins and carbohydrates. However, maximizing biomass production alone does not guarantee the preservation of nutritional quality after harvest. This study investigated both cultivation and post-harvest processing conditions for three duckweed species (Lemna minor,...
This study presents a novel, integrated treatment approach for petrochemical wastewater laden with 2-chloro-4-nitroaniline (2-Cl-4-NA) and heavy metals using a baffled duckweed reactor (BDR). Unlike traditional systems, this BDR leverages a unique tripartite synergy between Lemna gibba, a specialized symbiotic bacterial community, and in-situ photocatalytic oxidation. At an optimized hydraulic...
Seafood processing industries generate significant volumes of highly polluted wastewater that poses serious environmental challenges. The characteristics of seafood processing wastewaters were identified, focussing on the different processing stages. Fish filleting wastewater, generated from food-grade raw materials, contains plant nutrients, oils, proteins, and other organic compounds that...
Small, fast-accumulating, floating, aquatic macrophytes such as Lemnaceae (duckweeds) and Azolla have gained attention as an eco-friendly and cost-effective solution to be used for wastewater remediation due to their ability to remove nutrients and their potential for valorisation. Polycultures in agricultural systems have the potential to outperform monocultures through complementary resource...
Rare earth elements (REEs) are increasingly used in modern technologies, raising concerns about their release into aquatic environments and subsequent transfer through food webs. This study investigated the response of the floating macrophyte Lemna gibba to three ionic REEs (Ce, Nd, and Sm), focusing on phytotoxicity, uptake, and bioaccumulation. Plants were exposed to contaminated water for...
Agricultural drainage waters contain recoverable plant nutrients but may contribute to eutrophication when discharged untreated. This study evaluated Lemna minor for nutrient recovery from agricultural drainage water and, more importantly, investigated the unexplored potential of its dried biomass to bind boron (B) in soil and mitigate B toxicity in a crop plant. Duckweed was cultivated in...
Desalination brine, typically considered a disposal challenge, is evaluated through a resource recovery model that converts the concentrate into a valuable input for food production. A sequential system consisting of duckweed cultivation, fish production, and final irrigation of salt-tolerant halophytes is developed. Duckweed (Lemna gibba) serves as a key component by assimilating nutrients...
Vaccination is a cornerstone of modern health management. It`s particular important in intensive animal production systems, such as aquaculture, where high stocking densities facilitate the rapid spread of pathogens. Oral vaccines offer a stress-free, scalable alternative to traditional fish injections. Our study explores duckweed as platform for vaccine production and as vehicle for oral...
Newcastle virus disease (ND) in poultry is highly contagious. Weak strains cause loss in egg production, virulent strains kill the birds1. NDV virions posses an envelop and contain a single molecule of linear, negative sense RNA coding for at least six proteins. The important proteins for subunit vaccines are two glycoproteins: the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN), and the fusion protein (F),...
Silk sericin, a glycoprotein produced by Bombyx mori, naturally coats and binds silk fibroin fibers during cocoon formation. Beyond this role, sericin's biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and bioactive properties, including antioxidant and adhesive effects, have made it attractive for a range of biomedical and biomaterial applications. However, conventional degumming methods are harsh,...
This poster centres around exploring the flowering response potential of Lemna minor, a species not known to be able to flower in laboratory conditions. We use phylogenetic assays to identify potential regulators of flowering in L. minor to better understand the potential mechanism behind flowering in this species, and use modern molecular biology to identify the regulation of these...
Lemnaceae (duckweeds) and Azolla, are floating aquatic plants, that exhibit rapid growth in nutrient-rich waters and have considerable potential for biomass production using wastewater derived nutrients. This study evaluated Lemna species and Azolla filiculoides (Azolla) growth performance on industrial meat processing effluent under controlled laboratory conditions. Growth effects...
The present study evaluated the suitability of recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) process water from African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) for cultivating Lemna minor (9440) in a greenhouse system. An indoor vertical farming (IVF) system for decoupled aquaponics was developed and implemented.
Cultivation in process water had no significant effect on frond area or frond weight, while...
Changes in morphology have occurred frequently over the course of plant evolution, and in some cases involve the loss of entire organs or structures, yet the mechanisms that underpin organ loss are not well understood. We are using duckweed as a model to understand organ loss. As duckweed evolved, they experienced a dramatic reduction in anatomical complexity. Their roots losing the ability to...
Intensive swine farming generates nutrient-rich wastewater that, if mismanaged, poses environmental risks but also offers opportunities for resource recovery. Duckweed, noted for its rapid growth and high nutrient-uptake capacity, offers a promising solution for wastewater treatment and holds untapped potential for agricultural valorisation. This study investigated duckweed cultivated on both...
Polylactic acid (PLA) has gained considerable industrial relevance, often considered an environmentally preferable material, but it can actually undergo fragmentation, generating micro- and nano-plastics (MPs/NPs), whose biological consequences are still insufficiently characterized. In the present study, we used an untargeted metabolomics approach to investigate the in vivo metabolic...
Predicting the outcome of species interactions in complex communities requires separating the direct effects that organisms have on each other from those that function indirectly through their influence on other community members and the environment. We performed a two-year outdoor experiment with 14 mesocosms containing the giant duckweed, Spirodela polyrhiza, in the presence or absence of...
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture is an aquaculture system in which extractive species (algae, aquatic plants, bivalves, etc.) recycle the waste produced by fed species (fish, shrimp, etc.). By integrating organisms from different trophic levels, IMTA reduces the potential environmental impacts of aquaculture and improves the sustainability and economic value of production systems.
The...
Evolution does not always lead to increased complexity, and in plants, the loss of floral organs is a recurring phenomenon across different lineages. However, the mechanisms behind this simplification remain poorly understood. To investigate the evolutionary processes leading to floral organ loss, duckweeds, especially Wolffia microscopica, provide an ideal system because of the smallest...
Transgenerational plasticity is considered a flexible and rapid adaptive mechanism that enables organisms to respond to environmental change over relatively short evolutionary timescales. However, how long these effects persist and the extent to which they influence organismal fitness remain largely unknown. Here, we investigated these questions using the giant duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza)...
Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) are the smallest flowering plants and reproduce predominantly through vegetative propagation, while flowering occurs only rarely under natural and laboratory conditions, limiting breeding and germplasm conservation. Although salicylic acid (SA) efficiently induces flowering in several duckweed species, the molecular mechanisms regulating floral transition remain largely...
Desalination brine is increasingly recognized as a potential resource rather than a waste stream requiring disposal. This study presents a modelling strategy for sequentially reusing desalination concentrate for food production, fish culture (food) and irrigation of salt-tolerant halophytes crops, including Atriplex lentiformis and Salicornia bigelovii. The proposed system follows a serial...
Abstract
This study investigated the growth and physiological responses of four Lemna gibba clones (UD0101, UD0103, UD0106, and UD0114) following 7-day exposure to Mn (0.05–160 mg L⁻¹) under controlled conditions (Steinberg’s medium containing 0.05 mg Mn L⁻¹). Growth was assessed using frond area relative growth rate (RGRFA) and frond number relative growth rate (RGRFN). Photosynthetic...
In eukaryotes, post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) involves the production of small
interfering RNAs (siRNAs) and their incorporation into ARGONAUTE (AGO) proteins. The
resulting siRNA–AGO complex mediates mRNA cleavage and/or translational repression,
leading to degradation via RNA decay pathways and ultimately resulting in reduced protein
expression. In plants, mRNA cleavage is...
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and microplastics (MPs) are among the most prevalent emerging contaminants in freshwater ecosystems, yet the role of nanoparticle surface coating in modulating phytotoxicity, particularly under co-exposure conditions, remains poorly understood. To address this, we examined the individual and combined effects of two surface-coated AgNPs, cetyltrimethylammonium...
Duckweeds (Lemnaceae) are rapidly growing aquatic plants with potential as sustainable feedstocks for human nutrition, animal feed, biofuel production, and wastewater bioremediation. In natural environments, duckweed coexists with diverse microbial communities, forming a complex host-microbiome assemblage known as a holobiont. Within this assemblage, duckweed-associated plant growth-promoting...
Duckweeds possess some of the most highly reduced flowers among angiosperms; however, their sexual reproduction is poorly understood. Although flowering can be induced in multiple duckweed species under controlled conditions, successful seed set remains limited. A better understanding of pollination is required to establish controlled crossing systems, while reliable seed production is...
Duckweed (Lemna sp.) is a promising alternative ruminant feed due to its rapid growth and high protein content. However, extracellular self-DNA released from plant tissues may exert species-specific inhibitory effects on microbial activity, a phenomenon remaining unexplored in rumen systems. This study evaluated the effects of Lemna supplementation and Lemna-derived self-DNA on in vitro rumen...
Small RNA silencing pathways in plants play crucial roles in development, antiviral resistance, and transposon control. There are two types of silencing: transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) and post-transcriptional (PTGS). TGS acts via the RNA-directed DNA methylation pathway and 24nt-long small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). PTGS functions at the mRNA level, where viral or transgene RNA...
Extracellular self-DNA has emerged as a species-specific regulator of plant growth, yet its effects and physiological responses in aquatic plants remain poorly understood. This study investigated whether extracellular self-DNA preferentially inhibits growth in a two-species duckweed community and whether this response is associated with oxidative stress. Lemna perpusilla and Spirodela...
Duckweed is a sustainable biomass resource capable of high-value protein production, carbon sequestration, nutrient recovery, and water purification. This study evaluated the feasibility of commercial-scale duckweed production in Malaysia through pilot-scale cultivation, sequential nutrient optimization, drying process development, and life cycle assessment (LCA). A two-stage sequential media...
Duckweed is a sustainable aquatic biomass with potential for biorefinery applications owing to its rapid growth and rich proteins, starch composition, and bioactive compounds. However, conventional processing methods often fail to efficiently fractionate its components, limiting biomass valorization. This study investigated aqueous fractionation assisted by pulsed electric field (PEF) and...
In the face of climate change and the demand for more sustainable alternatives to industrial operations, duckweed plants are utilized across a diverse set of applications – from wastewater treatment, to feedstock production, to bioenergy and bioproduct generation. The Wolffia genus is the smallest and fastest-growing known angiosperm, making it of particular interest for duckweed research,...
The growing demand for sustainable food has driven the development of alternative protein sources with a lower environmental impact. Lemna minor emerges as a promising alternative due to its high protein content, essential amino acid rich profile, rapid growth, and high adaptability to adverse environmental conditions. The goal of this project is to explore this species as a sustainable source...
High phenotypic plasticity of duckweeds affects their biomass productivity. Reliable estimation of biomass quantity and quality, hence, are important when culturing duckweed outdoors. Spectral proxies, that is, indices derived from light reflectance and transmittance, became fundamental in crop production, but their application on duckweeds has only been reported scarcely.
We aimed at...
Cultivating duckweed (Lemnaceae) on livestock wastewater represents a leading strategy for the circular bioeconomy, particularly relevant in Campania (Italy), where about 80% of the national buffalo herd is concentrated and where sustainable wastewater management is a priority challenge.
Several image analysis techniques are now available to calculate the relative growth rate (RGR) of these...
Duckweeds are a group of aquatic plants that represent an attractive platform for molecular farming due to their rapid vegetative propagation, genetic stability, and low cultivation costs. In this study, we investigated the production of recombinant human interferon alpha-2b (HsIFN2b), a cytokine widely used for antiviral and anti-proliferative therapies, in duckweed, with potential to reduce...
Effluents generated by the dairy sector constitute a nutrient-rich matrix with a
significant environmental impact. Conventional treatments are generally energy-intensive and
based on biological oxidation, leading to nutrient dissipation and secondary waste products.
Phytoremediation emerge as sustainable strategy for nutrient recovery and biomass
production within a circular economy framework....
